Global value chains (GVCs), largely coordinated by multinational com-
panies, have generated hundreds of millions of jobs in low-income and
emerging economies. Women occupy a signicant proportion of these jobs
and constitute the majority of workers in some industries, such as the garment
and food processing industries (Barrientos, 2014; ILO, 2015; Posthuma and
Rossi, 2017). However, global sourcing across international borders involves
high levels of competition between companies seeking lower production costs,
which results in precarious jobs for many workers given that labour is the cost
factor that suppliers often squeeze when under pressure from the purchasing
practices of multinational companies (ILO, 2017). This especially affects work-
ers in groups discriminated against on the basis of gender, caste, race, religion,
ethnicity, physical ability or sexual orientation. In particular, women are dis-
proportionally affected by business activities (United Nations, 2019). Gender
discrimination is endemic in GVCs, and women drawn in as a source of low-
cost labour are concentrated in the more insecure and less protected jobs with
International Labour Review730
low pay and poor conditions (Barrientos, 2019). They often lack the ability to
negotiate the terms and conditions of work with their employers, organize
through independent trade unions or raise grievances.
Many multinational companies, including retailers, brands and some large
intermediaries, have adopted voluntary codes of labour practice to ensure
minimum labour standards. In many cases, these have been developed in re-
sponse to pressure from civil society organizations, in particular trade unions
and non-governmental organizations (NGOs). Voluntary codes form part of
multinational companies’ private governance of GVCs and have spawned a
large social compliance industry. However, social auditing of the implemen-
of the limitations of social compliance
to address labour rights is therefore growing
tation of codes has been ineffective in picking up on or addressing gender
discrimination and harassment, and the quality of audits is often poor (BSR,
2018a; Barrientos, 2019). Recognition