the methods of punishment under the ancient judicial system of the Muslim period. Islamic criminal law during that time was composed of three main categories of crimes and punishments:

1. Ḥudūd (Prescribed Crimes and Punishments):

   • These are specific crimes that have fixed punishments prescribed in the Qur’an and the Sunnah (traditions of the Prophet Muhammad).
   • Examples of ḥudūd crimes include theft, adultery, false accusation of adultery, and consumption of alcohol.
   • The punishments for ḥudūd crimes are severe and include amputation of limbs, stoning to death, and flogging¹.

2. Qiṣāṣ (Just Retaliation) Crimes and Punishments:

   • Qiṣāṣ crimes involve aggression on life and limb through homicide and bodily injuries.
   • These crimes are also based on scripture, but they allow for adjustment and pardoning by relevant parties and authorities.
   • For example, if someone causes bodily harm to another, the victim or their family can choose between seeking retaliation (qiṣāṣ) or accepting blood money (diya) as compensation¹.

3. Taʿzīr (Deterrent but Discretionary Punishments):

   • Taʿzīr encompasses all other offense types and transgressions that do not fall under the ḥudūd or qiṣāṣ categories.
   • These crimes are not quantified and remain open to judicial discretion by rulers and judges.
   • Taʿzīr punishments can vary depending on the circumstances and the judge’s assessment of the situation¹.

In summary, the ancient Islamic judicial system had a well-defined framework for handling crimes and punishments, with distinct norms, evidentiary standards, and procedures for each category.